Role of Social Cleavages in Indian Elections: Caste, Class, Religion, Ethnicity and Gender
Voting behaviour refers to the patterns, motivations, and determinants that shape how individuals and groups participate in elections and make electoral choices. In India, voting behaviour cannot be adequately understood through individual preferences alone. It is deeply embedded in social cleavages—historically rooted divisions in society that structure political identities, interests, and alignments.
Indian elections thus reflect not only political competition among parties, but also the interaction between democracy and a plural, stratified, and unequal social order. Caste, class, religion, ethnicity, and gender have played—and continue to play—a decisive role in shaping electoral behaviour.
Social Cleavages: Conceptual Framework
The concept of social cleavages originates in comparative political sociology and refers to enduring divisions in society that:
- Are socially rooted
- Are politically expressed
- Shape collective political behaviour
In India, social cleavages are not merely social categories; they are politically mobilized identities. Elections provide a key arena where these identities are articulated, negotiated, and transformed into political power.
Caste and Voting Behaviour
Caste as a Central Axis of Electoral Politics
Caste has been one of the most influential determinants of voting behaviour in India. Historically embedded in social hierarchy, caste became politically salient with the expansion of mass suffrage and democratic competition.
Caste influences voting behaviour through:
- Group identity and solidarity
- Patron–client relationships
- Leadership representation
- Perceived group interests
For many voters, caste functions as a cognitive shortcut, helping them evaluate candidates and parties in a complex political environment.
From Dominant Castes to Subaltern Mobilization
In the early decades after independence, electoral politics was often dominated by upper and intermediate castes. Over time, democratic deepening enabled the political mobilization of:
- Other Backward Classes (OBCs)
- Scheduled Castes (SCs)
- Scheduled Tribes (STs)
This led to the emergence of caste-based parties and the reconfiguration of party systems at regional and national levels. Caste voting thus evolved from passive social influence to active political assertion.
Class and Voting Behaviour
Economic Position and Political Choice
Class refers to an individual’s position in the economic structure, shaped by income, occupation, and access to resources. In India, class voting has been less rigid than in industrialized Western societies, due to:
- Overlapping identities of caste and class
- Informal and agrarian economic structures
Nevertheless, class influences voting behaviour through:
- Attitudes toward redistribution and welfare
- Perceptions of economic performance
- Employment and livelihood concerns
Class, Development, and Electoral Accountability
Economic voting has gained significance with liberalization and the expansion of welfare policies. Voters increasingly evaluate governments based on:
- Inflation, employment, and growth
- Delivery of welfare schemes
- Development outcomes
Thus, while class may not always produce uniform voting blocs, it shapes issue-based voting and retrospective evaluation.
Religion and Voting Behaviour
Religion as Identity and Mobilization
Religion constitutes a powerful social cleavage in Indian elections. It shapes voting behaviour through:
- Collective identity and belonging
- Symbolic appeals and narratives
- Perceptions of security and representation
Religious voting does not necessarily imply uniform behaviour, but it becomes salient when political actors mobilize religious identity for electoral gain.
Secularism, Communalism, and Electoral Choice
Indian elections have witnessed both:
- Cross-religious voting based on issues and leadership
- Polarized voting during periods of communal tension
Religion thus interacts with political context. Its influence increases when elections are framed around identity, threat, or cultural nationalism, and declines when governance and development dominate electoral discourse.
Ethnicity, Region, and Voting Behaviour
Ethnic Identity and Regional Politics
Ethnicity—often overlapping with language, region, and culture—plays a major role in India’s federal democracy. Ethnic voting behaviour is visible in:
- Regional parties
- Movements for autonomy or recognition
- State-level electoral alignments
Ethnic identities shape voting by linking political choice to:
- Cultural recognition
- Regional development
- Protection of local interests
Federalism and Ethnic Mobilization
India’s federal structure has provided space for ethnic mobilization through democratic means. Elections have transformed ethnic grievances into institutionalized political participation, reducing the likelihood of extra-constitutional conflict in many cases.
Gender and Voting Behaviour
Gender as an Emerging Electoral Cleavage
Gender has emerged as an increasingly important dimension of voting behaviour. Traditionally, women’s voting patterns were influenced by:
- Family and community norms
- Lower political participation
Over time, increased literacy, political awareness, and targeted welfare policies have altered this pattern.
Women as Independent Political Actors
Recent elections indicate:
- Rising female voter turnout
- Issue-based voting by women
- Growing attention to safety, welfare, health, and education
Gender now functions not only as a social identity, but also as a distinct political constituency, influencing party strategies and policy agendas.
Intersections and Overlaps of Social Cleavages
Social cleavages in India do not operate in isolation. Voting behaviour is shaped by their intersection:
- Caste and class
- Religion and region
- Gender and welfare access
This intersectionality explains why Indian voting behaviour is fluid rather than mechanically determined. Voters negotiate multiple identities and interests when making electoral choices.
Changing Nature of Cleavage-Based Voting
While social cleavages remain important, their role has evolved:
- From fixed loyalties to flexible alignments
- From identity-only voting to identity-plus-issue voting
- From elite-dominated mobilization to mass participation
Media expansion, education, and governance performance have introduced new variables into voting behaviour.
Democratic Implications of Social Cleavages
Social cleavages in elections have produced mixed democratic outcomes:
- They have enhanced representation and inclusion
- They have enabled marginalized groups to access power
- They have sometimes deepened polarization and division
Thus, cleavage-based voting reflects both the strengths and tensions of Indian democracy.
Conclusion
Voting behaviour in India is deeply shaped by social cleavages of caste, class, religion, ethnicity, and gender. These cleavages do not undermine democracy by themselves; rather, they represent the social foundations of democratic participation in a diverse society.
Indian elections demonstrate that democracy does not erase social differences—it politicizes them. Over time, the challenge has been to transform identity-based mobilization into inclusive representation, issue-based competition, and accountable governance.
Understanding voting behaviour through the lens of social cleavages therefore provides critical insight into how Indian democracy functions, evolves, and negotiates the relationship between social diversity and political unity.
References
- Kothari, Rajni. Politics in India
- Yadav, Yogendra. Understanding Indian Voters
- Chhibber, Pradeep. Democracy without Associations
- Dalton, Russell J. Citizen Politics
- Brass, Paul R. Ethnicity and Nationalism in South Asia
